Yuppies, Bikers, and Gods
Toxicity In Manhood
In Honor of International Men’s Day
Introduction
What makes a man, a man? Masculinity is defined as the behavior taken by males to try to “be credited as a man” (Schrock & Schwalbe 2009). It is a system by which males exert their dominance over others, as well as the environment, in attempts of achieving manhood. Manly acts are defined as the behavior men adopt when they try to create a facade of “manhood” (279). If he does so successfully, the individual male will be considered a “man,” and he will gain the “rights and privileges attendant to membership in the dominant gender group” (279). Therefore, when manhood acts become a destructive force that consumes the individual and those around him, it becomes ‘toxic masculinity.’
Several psychological, philosophical, and literary works have been written over centuries regarding the male psyche. The two literary works this essay seeks to explore, have been written with the intention of critiquing the stereotypical and toxic masculinity that men often seek to achieve. Akira (1988), an animated Japanese film set in a futuristic Tokyo, can hardly be considered a similar work to Bret Easton Ellis’ novel, American Psycho, which takes place in the more contemporary setting of New York City in the 1980s. Even the protagonists of these two stories are widely different. Akira is the conflict between two adolescents who grew up together and are part of the same biker gang; one of these youngsters would gain superhuman psychic abilities. The latter is the story of a handsome and young Wall Street businessman, which is also a serial killer. The inclusion of these two vastly different literary works into this essay was done so in order to showcase the universality of the ‘toxic masculinity’ phenomenon.
However, regardless of their differences, both of these works are able to illustrate the horrendous ways in which masculinity can corrupt men and damage its user as well as those around him. This essay will explore to what extent are Katsuhiro Otomo’s Akira and Bret Easton Ellis’ American Psycho representations of toxic masculinity and how do these works compare to each other? To reach a conclusion, several aspects of manhood will be analyzed; such as the violence caused by masculine selves and its impact on males and females alike. The social competition that gives birth to this aggression and decadence within men brought about by masculinity will also be discussed.
Background
Akira is a Japanese animation film released in Japan in 1988 based on the manga by the same name, which was also written by Akira’s director, Katsuhiro Otomo. Even if the movie omits many of the plot points found in the colossal 120-chapter manga, Akira has cemented itself as a monolith in the animation industry within and outside Japan. Its story is that of the conflict for recognition between two emotionally repressed teenagers, Kaneda and Tetsuo, both part of a biker gang in the sci-fi city of Neo-Tokyo.
American Psycho is Bret Easton Ellis’ novel of transgressive fiction released in 1991, which also had a movie release in 2000 starring Christian Bale. The novel gives the reader an insight into the maniacal mind of a Wall Street yuppie. Yuppie is a 1980s term which refers to “young business people who were considered arrogant, undeservedly wealthy and obnoxious” (Kenton). Even though the novel is narrated by Patrick Bateman, the protagonist, at no point does Ellis attempt to attract sympathy from the reader towards the character. In fact, the novel attempts to deconstruct the persona of a yuppie by portraying him as a serial killer and exposing their toxic behavior.
Violence Among Men
“One of the most important lessons about signifying manhood concerns aggression and violence” (Schrock & Schwalbe 282). This “fighting spirit” (282), used to signify manhood, is crucial to asserting dominance over other men. This lesson is displayed in its most crude form through the showcasing of gore in both Akira and American Psycho.
Patrick Bateman’s inner conflict in American Psycho is defined by the polarizing personalities residing within himself, one which is an agreeable businessman and the other being a serial killer. Bateman could simultaneously be seen attending an expensive nightclub and also be shouting death threats to a bartender, such as: “you are a fucking ugly bitch I want to stab” (Ellis 59). His violent half is the incarnation of the toxic masculinity residing within the character. Simultaneously, in Akira, Otomo highlights moments of rage and conflict among the gangs, comprised of young boys, to visually symbolize the violent tendencies that may arise from one’s own masculinity.
The beginning of Akira has the audience follow a street fight between the bikers of Tetsuo’s group against the “clowns” as these two clans participate in a standoff through the neon-lit streets of Neo-Tokyo (Akira 00:04:15-06:30). It is in these streets that the boys ought to show their prowess in driving and combat (00:28:30-29:20). Through this ritual of violence, the boys will be able to assert their dominance over each other. After all, within this subculture of teenagers there exists a “valorization of aggression and violence” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282) because this sort of behavior is expected from them to be able to be considered men. This showcase of strength will be able to guarantee them power within their own social sphere.
If Akira is the portrayal of how young men may convert into unstable adults who are only preoccupied with appearing manly, then American Psycho’s Bateman would be the final result of this process. In Bateman’s life, acts of aggression have escalated beyond those portrayed in Akira. The aggression depicted extends beyond disputes on the street and has escalated into serial murder. For example, his list of priorities includes “saw[ing] a hardbody’s head off” (Ellis 177).
Violence and aggression influence Bateman’s daily life to the point that he has become desensitized to these concepts. Bateman often decides to kill out of spite or for the sheer sport of it: “I pull out a long, thin knife with a serrated edge and, being very careful not to kill him, push maybe half an inch of the blade into his right eye [...], I start stabbing him in the stomach” (Ellis 131).
His thoughts are clouded continuously by the thought of inflicting damage upon those around him: “I would have broken into Scott and Anne’s studio [...] and with an ax chopped them to pieces”. This dark thought, however, is quickly glanced over, and Bateman becomes preoccupied with the fact that he “forgot to return [his] videotapes” (95). Bateman’s violent tendencies have become a routine to him because it is his method of asserting his manliness. He has become an expert at playing the role of a ‘man’ to prove himself as such.
More important than being aggressive, is being perceived as aggressive. It is essential that others notice these qualities in the male in question; otherwise, no one exists there to authenticate their manliness. For this reason, it is that we see the boys in Akira conglomerate in gangs, so they can collectively uplift each other into manhood. Similarly, Bateman occasionally has the need to showcase his true self to the outer world. For example, Bateman would casually mention how he “killed those two black kids” (121) to his date, Evelyn.
The Competition for Prestige
Throughout both texts, Akira and American Psycho, the male characters can be seen participating in a constant civil war among them in order to rise above the rest. The methods they use to gain prestige, however, differ among the texts. In Akira, the boys compete in the streets of Neo-Tokyo for prestige, while in American Psycho the businessmen challenge each other by displaying their riches.
The phenomenon of toxic masculinity extends from the human instinct where “all humans learn where they are supposed to fit” (Schrock and Schwalbe 280). Humans make use of these “preexisting cultural categories” (280) to position themselves in a hierarchical order. Manhood acts, therefore, are done in order to claim power in this “system of privilege” (280), given that males are the dominant sex in today’s society. Furthermore, this competition for power can be noticed at the micro-level as already licensed men try to superimpose themselves over each other by appearing as the better man.
Even from a young age, boys prefer to play in “groups that are more competitive” (282) when compared to girls. Akira utilizes the conflict between Tetsuo and Kaneda to represent the competitive nature of men. From the start, we are able to notice the jealousy instilled in Tetsuo (Akira 00:03:05-03:45). As Tetsuo inspects Kaneda’s bike a hierarchy is established. After Tetsuo claims he ‘could’ drive Kaneda’s bike, he begins a quest to break the hierarchy and prove himself to be at the level of Kaneda. Tetsuo attempts to show dominance by stealing Kaneda’s bike and escaping the city with his assumed-partner, Kaori. His attempt is thwarted, however (00:26:50-28:08). Tetsuo’s frustration with not being able to out best Kaneda has now led to an inferiority complex birthing within him (00:29:35-30:00).
Tetsuo then decides to change his approach toward gaining dominance. He is now, “instead of trying to control others, [he is trying] to show that [he] cannot be controlled” (Schrock and Schwalbe 285) in order to gain dominance by refusing to accept help from Kaneda (Akira 01:04:00-01:05:20). As Tetsuo and Kaneda decide to resolve their struggle for power (01:33:20-01:38:20), the motif of violence is repeated again when their masculine selves clash.
The tendency for male characters in Akira to resist authority is not a quality exclusive to Tetsuo. The point behind a group of schoolkid bikers lies in the idea of “using crime to show that they are fearless and indomitable” (Schrock and Schwalbe 286). “Boys learn [...] that they can impress peers if they break rules [...] and disdain academics” (282), and it is this rebellious attitude that gives them their ‘edge’ and gains them social status within their school and even among girls (Akira 00:23:45-25:20).
Tetsuo and Kaneda are active participants in a “system of privilege” in which they compete violently. There exists a passive conflict as well, as demonstrated by Tetsuo’s jealousy towards Kaneda’s bike. Patrick Bateman is also seen partaking in this competition of sorts throughout American Psycho. Whereas prestige was portrayed by the social stratum characters held within the biker gang in Akira, in American Psycho prestige is directly correlated to the wealth characters possess as well as their appearance.
Patrick Bateman could be interpreted as the personification of the statement: “productivity and breadwinning [can be] signs of a masculine self” (Schrock and Schwalbe 283). To Bateman, wealth is the defining characteristic of a person. The chapter ‘Morning’ is dedicated in its entirety to Bateman describing, in detail, his entire home and all the furniture that inhabits it. Furthermore, Bateman always feels the need to point out what every person he encounters is wearing: “He’s dressed in some kind of tacky-looking lime-green polyester pantsuit with washed-out Sergio Valente jeans worn over it” (Ellis 130).
The characters in this book have an obsession with the aesthetics of people. Similarly to Tetsuo’s infatuation with Kaneda’s bike in Akira, in American Psycho, Bateman is infused with jealousy at the sight of a better business card than his. He calls Price’s card “magnificent,” and he is even “tranced out” by “the classy coloring, the thickness, [and] the lettering” (44-46) of the card. Appearing wealthy and handsome is the priority of these characters.
Wealth and appearance also dictate how Bateman treats others, as seen at the moment he meets Tom Cruise. Bateman had just called a magazine seller, which had pointed to him that his nose was bleeding, a “fucking Iranian” (70). Consequently, Bateman meets Tom Cruise at his apartment building. The famous actor decides to mention to Bateman his nose is bleeding, to which Bateman responds with: “I’m a big fan” (72). Tom Cruise was not interested at all in Bateman, as he quickly “jab[bed] at the Close Door button” (72) after Bateman got off the elevator. Even though Tom Cruise was more condescending than the Iranian, they receive vastly different responses due to their differing statuses. Since “all manhood acts [...] are aimed at claiming privilege,” (Schrock and Schwalbe 281) the male characters in American Psycho seek wealth and a better appearance to assert their manhood and claim this privilege.
Furthermore, toxic masculinity may take many forms as “the practices that are interpreted as signs of a masculine self can also vary depending on [...] the situation” (280). Already we have seen Bateman in situations where violence and aggression will ensure him the highest amount of social points; as well as other situations where appearing as a wealthy businessman may benefit him more. But also, “men in management positions [...] must also demonstrate the qualities of rationality” (285). For this reason, Bateman often takes the role of a rational man to impress his friends as he gives monologues about how humanity has to “end apartheid” and “slow down the nuclear arms race” (Ellis 15). Yet, he will not hesitate to call others a “retarded cocksucking kike” (152). Moreover, men may “signify masculine selves through [...] binge drinking and high-risk behavior” (Schrock and Schwalbe 280). This is another of Bateman’s multiple personas. In order to complete acts of manhood, Bateman takes his date to “do some coke” (Ellis 80) and get drunk. His rational self is quickly diluted whenever no one is looking; there is no longer a need to fulfill the expectations of others. His personality is solely driven by the pursuit of privilege through expectation-fulfilling behavior.
The Self-Destructive Nature of Toxic Masculinity
The characters of both narratives display declining mental states throughout their respective plotlines. This dysfunction within Tetsuo was placed within him since his friendship with Kaneda was forged in the school playground (Akira 01:55:30-56:05). Tetsuo was too weak to defend himself, and his insecurities began to grow as his mind kept circulating around the thought of him not being as good a man as Kaneda. Meanwhile, Bateman becomes isolated and even dares to question his own existence: “I simply am not there” (Ellis 377). The effects of toxic masculinity expand beyond the way in which the subject treats others; this type of behavior can also be detrimental to the male’s own mental state.
Tetsuo, a young adult, has lost his sense of identity, as he cannot enter the social group of the adult-like rogues nor that of the child-like espers. It is through a phantasmagorical sequence that the audience watches as the espers reject Tetsuo and assault him while possessing mutated children's toys (Akira 00:49:10-52:10). Moreover, Tetsuo had been previously deemed too weak to be at an equal level as Kaneda; he is unfit to ride his bike. It is this exclusion that breeds more frustration within him and causes him to lash out on the espers (01:00:00-01:00). Tetsuo is infuriated to see the espers’ “prolonged childhood” (Felker-Martin) because he is now being forced to ‘grow up,’ as signified by his newly-found powers. Now he is unable to complete the rites of passage of puberty correctly; he is unable to complete his childhood successfully in order to become an adult.
Many times adolescents are untrained to control their emotions because they are taught “that emotional display must be regulated” and “that boys should not express fear or pain” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282). This leaves young men isolated, with a “turbulent inner life” and a “struggle to find connection” (Felker-Martin). They are incapable of connecting with others and continuously refuse help from others; which is how Tetsuo acts (Akira 01:04:00-06:00). There still exists an emotionally inexperienced child within Tetsuo, and he is being forced to grow into a man. Tetsuo is haunted by the image of the Teddy Bear that appears to ooze semen (00:53:23) because it is a representation of himself: a bastard teen between a sexually-mature adult and a childish infant. This bastard teen living within Tetsuo is finally revealed to the audience during the film’s grotesque finale (01:48:30-51:15).
Tetsuo and Kaneda’s ultimate encounter at the Tokyo Stadium is Tetsuo’s last attempt at achieving a connection with Kaori and Kaneda. He “needs them, but he lacks the ability to express those feelings through any medium but force” (Felker-Martin). His remaining two friends are crushed to death due to his own self (Akira 01:44:00-51:10). Young boys are not given the tools necessary to express their emotions, as sometimes society “police[s] the expression of emotion” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282). Male adolescents, in turn, are left alone to be destructive towards each other as well as themselves. Tetsuo’s own lust for power is what led him to isolate himself from society and to refuse aid, leading him into a path of self-destruction. His mutated self was the embodiment of toxic masculinity: a violent mature man with the emotional capacity of an infant.
Patrick Bateman is another case of a man who is emotionally repressed by societal expectations of manhood. The state of isolation is revealed to us through a short confession done by Bateman:
“There is an idea of a Patrick Bateman, some kind of abstraction, but there is
no real me, only an entity, something illusory, and though I can hide my cold
gaze and you can shake my hand and feel flesh gripping yours and maybe you
can even sense our lifestyles are probably comparable: I simply am not there.”
Bateman’s mental state and his relationships with his peers are compromised due to his inability to express emotion. He is more concerned with keeping appearances than his own sanity: “I feel like shit but look great” (106).
The society depicted in American Psycho has been rid of its human connections due to males abandoning their emotional intellect to become men. Even when friends and co-workers surround Bateman, he cannot feel his own heart: “there’s nothing there, not even a beat” (116). No genuine interactions exist among individuals in this over-masculine representation of Wall Street. These entrepreneurs have even lost the ability to recognize each other because they have become sanitized of any form of affection: “Owen has mistaken me for Marcus Halberstam” (89).
In Akira, the intervention from the god-like being, Akira (Akira 01:49:20-52:10), resolves Tetsuo’s “flailing attempts to end the pain and misery of his lonely, frustrated life” (Felker-Martin). Whereas in American Psycho, there exists no catharsis for Bateman’s condition; agony will forever be inflicted upon him by the isolating phenomenon that is manhood. Instead, he wants his “pain to be inflicted on others” (Ellis 377). The murderous acts Bateman commits are done as an effort to alleviate his mental state because he has not been taught a healthy outlet for his emotions and instead only knows violence.
Bateman’s psychopathic behavior will not cease because there exists no monumental implosion that wipes away the suffering. After all, society forged Bateman and his peers: the yuppies. It is society that dictates the requirements to become a ‘man.’ They are expected to be ruthless and selfish but also to appear charismatic on the outside. Their crimes, made in the name of manhood, will go unpunished because they conform to expectations rather than acting in spite of them. There exists no “wanted poster” (394) for these yuppies.
Femininity as the victim of manhood
To enter the “dominant gender group” and obtain its “privilege[s]” individuals ought to commit “manhood acts” (Schrock and Schwalbe 281) which can be detrimental to the health of others as well as their own. The existence of biological differences between sexes means “males are taught and expected to identify [...] as either boys or men,” whereas “females are taught and expected to identify [...] as either girls or women” (279). Therefore, feminity is endangered when confronted by a ‘masculine self’ because “a male body is a symbolic asset and a female body a liability, when trying to signify possession of a masculine self” (281).
To showcase masculinity, boys are taught that “they should feel, or at least express, sexual desire for girls” (282). As males become men, they could be transformed into sexist individuals, as females become a medium to assert their manliness rather than their equal. Bateman is guilty of this crime. Throughout the book, the reader is exposed to various instances of him being abusive, either verbally or physically, towards women due to his sexist tendencies. For example, the audience could see as he prioritizes a woman’s body over her personality by calling a woman who received a breast reduction surgery a “dumb bitch” (Ellis 68).
Heterosexuality also serves as a strong notifier for masculinity. Boys should be “presenting themselves as heterosexually active” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282). In Akira, the characters are regularly accompanied by a set of girl partners (Akira 00:32:20-47) to cement themselves as heterosexual. Kaneda, the leader of the group, has higher expectations to fulfill and thus would go looking for a new girl partner, Kei (Akira 00:41:23-43:50). Similarly, Bateman’s “homophobic taunting” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282), such as his use of the word “faggots” (Ellis 68), would serve as one of his many ways to testify his heterosexuality.
Furthermore, the usage of “language and sometimes violence to turn girls and women into props” can be another example of “signifying heterosexuality” (Schrock and Schwalbe 282). One of the prime examples of this in Akira would be the case of sexual assault carried against Kaori by one of the adversary gang members (Akira 00:28:10-23). In addition to punching Tetsuo, the assault of Kaori served primarily as a display of manhood and dominance against Tetsuo. The assault is an excellent depiction of one of the many dangers females face when society creates a toxic sense of masculinity.
The exclusion of feminine attributes from the ‘dominant gender group’ results in the victimization of women. Men ought to “reject and devalue symbols of female identity in order to confirm their identities as boys” (Schrock and Schwalbe 281). This rejection extends itself unto gender violence. Akira depicts the victims of gender explicitly by showing the audience the body of Kaori being crushed to death by Tetsuo’s enlarging body (Akira 01:47:44-48:00). If we consider Tetsuo’s abhorrent body transformation as representative of toxic masculinity, it is fitting to see how manhood can inflict pain and suffering in women’s lives. Furthermore, Bateman would find pleasure in “tortur[ing] and film[ing]” (Ellis 326) women. Bateman is incapable of seeing women as equals due to his sense of masculinity, and thus justifies his violence towards them.
Conclusion
American Psycho and Akira are works presented in different mediums, originally written in different languages, produced continents apart, set in different time periods, and told using different narrative styles. Nevertheless, they come together to discuss an issue that can be empathized with by everyone, masculinity. It is no longer a concept that pertains only to biological males. It is now an issue that should be of concern to everyone, as showcased by the universal factor of masculinity. Not to say that femininity is not a matter of concern, but rather to express how important it is to create a dialogue to discuss the gender expectations society has created. These two texts have created gruesome depictions of the toxic repercussions of our current model for manhood. They explore how young men are isolated from emotional experiences and become violent rogues. They are impressive works of art that expose the audience to the brutalization women suffer due to the rejection of femininity. Akira and American Psycho speak to those who have been victims; because these works challenge masculinity and refuse to hide the cruel nature of ‘manhood acts.’
Works Cited
Ellis, Bret Easton. American Psycho: a Novel. Picador, 2006.
Felker-Martin, Gretchen. “You Called for Me: Masculine Pain and Isolation in Akira.” VRV Blog, 10 Sept. 2018, blog.vrv.co/felker-martin/2555/akira-boys/.
Kenton, Will. “What Is a Yuppie?” Investopedia, Investopedia, 2 July 2019, www.investopedia.com/terms/y/yuppie.asp.
Otomo, Katsuhiro, director. Akira. Toho, 1988, www.youtube.com/watch?v=O64qZyaaVwU.
Schrock, Douglas, and Michael Schwalbe. “Men, Masculinity, and Manhood Acts.” Vol. 35, 2009, pp. 277–295. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27800079. Accessed 1 July 2019.